Global cooperation and negotiations on climate change
Until the end of the 1970s, the only people who took an interest in climate change were scientists.
In 1979, reports presented at the first World Climate Conferenceprovided evidence that human activity has major impact on climate. This attracted the attention of journalists, then of the public, and finally of governments.
In 1988, the United Nations recognized climate change as one of the most pressing global challenges for humanity.
Some of the best scientific minds in the world began to work on the issue of climate change.
In 1988, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up by the International Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Development Programme. The panel was asked to review the available scientific evidence and show how human activity affects the climate.
The first IPCC report published in 1990 confirmed that the threat of climate change was real and that there was a direct connection between human activity and processes in the global atmosphere. Since then, five more IPCC reports have been released, the latest in 2021-2022, which assess climate change using the most recent research by scientists from around the world.
Since the first IPCC report, most scientists have increasingly agreed on the man-made nature of climate change and that we can and must find ways of combating it. This will only be possible if countries all over the world work together, and the best way of doing that is under the auspices of the United Nations.
In 1992, the countries of the world agreed at a United Nations conference dedicated to environment and development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, on the need to cooperate on climate, biodiversity and forests, and desertification issues. The agreement on climate issues was reflected in an international treaty, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that was negotiated within a record time of 18 months.
The Climate Convention entered into force in 1994, but it only set out general actions to limit and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and cooperate on adaptation to climate impacts. So, in 1995, at the first Conference of the Parties to the Convention (i.e., the countries that had signed the Convention), it was decided to prepare a further international legal instrument to regulate concrete actions by the Parties into the 21st century.
The negotiations to prepare this new instrument were complex and difficult. Yet, the countries came to agreement. And in December 1997 in Japan, they adopted a new international treaty, the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC, named after the city of Kyoto, where it was signed.
The Kyoto Protocol was revolutionary because it contained quantified commitments by each developed country not to exceed a certain level of greenhouse gas emissions in the period 2008-2012 relative to 1990, which was taken as the baseline. It also introduced innovative market-based mechanisms that attached a price to carbon dioxide emissions.
For example, the European Union pledged to reduce its emissions by 8%, Japan by 6%, and Russia and Ukraine not to exceed the level of their emissions in 1990.
The United States, which had the largest amount of greenhouse gas emissions in the world at that time, took an active part in the negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol, but later, in 2001, did not ratify it.
At the end of 2012, there were two international treaties in force: the Climate Convention, as an international treaty defining the general strategy for humanity to combat climate change, and the Kyoto Protocol to the Climate Convention, which established specific commitments of industrialized countries, such as the European Union, and countries with economies in transition, such as Russia and Ukraine.
The period of the first commitments made by industrialized countries and countries with economies in transition under the Kyoto Protocol expired at the end of 2012 and a new round of negotiations was needed for the next period, beginning in 2013. In 2013, developed countries that remain part of the Kyoto Protocol agreed on further commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the second commitment period from 2013 to 2020, promising more substantial reductions than before.
But the attitude of several countries towards the Kyoto Protocol has changed. The USA, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, and Russia have not joined the agreement for 2013– 2020. Their argument is that the world has changed since the 1990s, and that almost all the growth in emissions today comes not from developed countries, but from major developing countries with emerging economies (China, India, Brazil, South Africa, and others), whose emissions are not regulated by the Kyoto Protocol.
The solution that was found at that time was for these developed countries that are not part of the second com- mitment period of the Kyoto Protocol to take on voluntary commitments for emission reduction by 2020 and for de- veloping countries to implement Na- tionally Appropriate Mitigation Meas- ures in form and scope that they define by themselves.
Figure 3.4.2 Adoption of the landmark Paris Agreement at COP21 in Paris in 2015
Milestones in addressing climate change
- 1992 – Climate Convention, when countries agreed to formulate and plan actions to return emissions to 1990 levels;
- 2008-2012 – The first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, when 37 developed countries and the European Community committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to an average of 5% against 1990 levels;
- 2013-2020 – The second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, when developed countries committed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 18% below 1990 levels. However, the developed countries that did not participate in the second commitment period took on voluntary commitments to reduce emissions by 2020, and developing countries agreed to implement Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Measures (NAMAs).
- 2015 – Adoption of the Paris Agreement that includes Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of countries, with ambitious long-term measures to curb greenhouse gas emissions.
- 2016 – Entry into force of the Paris Agreement with the first commitments to reduce emissions (NDCs) between 2020 and 2025, or 2020 and 2030.
In December 2015, the countries met at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Paris to achieve a new universal agreement on climate that was implemented from 2020 and applied to all nations. In preparation for Paris, governments submitted their climate pledges, the Nationally Determined Contributions’ (NDCs), outlining their mid- term national emission reduction targets. The goal is to limit global average temperature well below 2°C and towards 1.5°C compared to pre- industrial levels.
The Paris conference looked at a broad range of climate change challenges and solutions including mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions, adaptation to climate change impacts, loss and damage from climate change as well as technological, capacity-development and financial support for such actions. The Paris Agreement is a legal framework for climate change actions beyond 2020; more detailed decisions on its implementation have been formulated and agreed upon at subsequent climate conferences.
Effective international cooperation can help the world develop along a 2°C and towards 1.5°C pathway and adapt to climate change that is already happening. It can also help countries grasp the many opportunities and benefits associated with the transition to low-carbon and climate resilient economies.
Importantly, the Paris Agreement does not impose emission limitation or reduction targets on countries. Rather, it encourages countries themselves to set targets that represent their best possible effort to contribute to the temperature goals of the Paris Agreement. Such efforts are reflected in the national climate plans that are submitted periodically by countries as NDCs. The first set of NDCs was submitted in 2015-2016, and the second in 2021-2022.
To ensure that NDCs pledged by countries collectively bring down emissions well below 2°C and towards a 1.5°C pathway, a new mechanism was introduced in the Paris Agreement, known as the Global Stock Take (GST). The GST will assess the collective progress towards the goals of the Paris Agreement, considering the best available science and equity. It will help to encourage and inform countries to increase their ambition and scale up their actions in line with what science requires when they update their NDCs. The next NDCs due in 2025 are expected to include targets for 2035.
The first GST took place in 2022-2023 and culminated at the Conference of Parties (COP28) held in December 2023 in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates. Countries reached a consensus that the world is not on track to achieve the 1.5°C goal of the Paris Agreement and must take urgent and ambitious actions on mitigation and adaptation and reflect them in the next NDCs in 2025.
The stock take recognizes the science that indicates that global greenhouse gas emissions need to be cut by 43% by 2030 and by 60% in 2035 compared to 2019 levels, to reach net zero emissions by 2050 and limit global warming to 1.5°C.
The stock take asks countries to a) take concrete actions towards achieving a tripling of renewable energy capacity and doubling energy efficiency improvements by 2030 globally and reducing methane emissions; and b) accelerate efforts towards phasing down unabated coal power, phasing out inefficient fossil fuel subsidies, and transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems in a just, orderly, and equitable manner. It calls on developed countries to continue leading the transition to an emissions-neutral and resilient future.
The COP28 also reached a consensus on stepping up support to developing countries to enable such ambitious action. For example, the GST assessment led to the establishment of funding mechanisms and tools to help deal with events such as the extreme flooding in Sylhet, Bangladesh in 2022 that led to a shortage of clean drinking water (Fig. 3.4.2). The GST outcome thus givescountries a fair chance to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement in this critical decade for climate action.
Figure 3.4.2 Women seeking drinking water in Sylhet, Bangladesh, after extreme floods in 2022
The Paris Agreement also requires developed countries to support developing countries by providing them with financial, technological, and capacity development. As part of the GST, countries recognized the need to provide developing countries with climate finance in the range of $5.8–5.9 trillion for the pre-2030 period.
COP28 was also the first to spotlight the impact of climate change on human health. Ministers of health, environment, finance, and other related sectors set out a roadmap and opportunities for actions to deal with this issue. Countries adopted the first Declaration on Health and Climate Change, where they committed to join forces and work to transform health systems to be climate-resilient, low-carbon, sustainable and equitable, and to better prepare communities and the most vulnerable populations for the impacts of climate change.
Climate change and sustainable development
International cooperation on climate change is closely linked with the other principal concern of humanity – how to achieve sustainable development for global prosperity. Sustainable development requires mutually supporting actions in three domains: economic, social, and environmental. And climate change impacts all three of them.
At the United Nations General Assembly in September 2015, 193 countries adopted the 2030 Development Agenda and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Goal 13 aims at ‘Taking urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts’ (Fig. 3.4.3).
Figure 3.4.3 17 Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations
Many other SDGs also address climate change, for example, Goal 7, ‘Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all’.
In our modern world of technological progress, about 1.3 billion people, 80% of them in rural areas, have no access to electricity. These people, the world’s poorest, make up more than 16% of the eight billion people now living on the planet.
Even more people, about three billion, use traditional biomass (wood and firewood) for cooking and heating. Pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from the combustion of biomass in inefficient cooking devices may be causing the premature deaths of 1.5 million people every year, or more than 4,000 a day. That is more than the total number of people who die each day from malaria, tuberculosis and AIDS combined. These poor people live in Africa, south of the Sahara Desert (the largest desert in the world), South Asia and Latin America.
This problem has been called ‘energy poverty’.
Achieving climate change goals and the goal of providing electricity access to all is mutually reinforcing. Clean, efficient, affordable, and reliable energy is key to global health and prosperity, and the efficient use of energy resources combats climate change. This is why it is vitally necessary to promote the rational and efficient use of energy resources.
All-of-society approach to climate change
Representatives of business, cities, regions, investors, civil society, academia, and organizations of women, youth, and indigenous peoples, or non-governmental actors, have been increasingly engaged in climate change negotiations since the 1990s.
It was at COP21 in Paris that governments formally agreed that it was urgent to mobilize stronger and more ambitious climate action to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement. Everyone has a role to play. Society and other non-governmental actors engage in climate action by creating their own climate plans, setting goals to reduce emissions, disclosing climate risks, enhancing technical proficiency and capacity, and assisting with the local execution of national policy objectives. They also work together and often with national governments in transnational climate initiatives or international cooperative initiatives. The United Nations Climate Ambition Summit in 2023 gave particular attention to the roles of governments, business, cities, regions, and financial institutions, and how they can work jointly in making the decarbonization of society and economy a reality (Fig. 3.4.4).
Figure 3.4.4 How different stakeholders join efforts to fight climate change: UN Climate Ambition Summit 2023
The UNFCCC provides information on more than 32,000 initiatives and actors engaged in climate action. In October 2023, these included 15,590 companies, 1,654 investors, 3,443 organizations, 282 regions, 11,354 cities and 194 countries. High-level champions at the UNFCCC guide actions by non-governmental actors to enable collaboration between governments and the cities, regions, businesses, and investors that must act on climate change. Most notable recent initiatives are the 2030 Breakthroughs, the Sharm-el-Sheikh adaptation agenda, Race to Zero and Race to Resilience campaigns.
Recognizing the importance of engaging young people in climate action, COP28 in Dubai created the position of a Youth Climate Champion. The champion is tasked with enhancing the meaningful participation and representation of young people in future COPs.
TASKS
1
In this set of tasks, you can try playing the role of an international negotiator. Read these ten tips and learn them by heart.
Ten tips for an international negotiator
- Focus on the issue that is being Don’t get diverted and don’t pursue sidetracks or jump to other topics.
- Try to find and distinguish the key idea, and focus on content, not on However, when engaging with others, do not forget that in diplomacy, the form or the way you present your ideas matters a lot.
- Paraphrase what the other person has said and check that you understood them correctly (‘If I’m not mistaken, you mean that…’, ‘Do I understand rightly that …’).
- Ask
- Respect the silence of the person you are talking to, don’t rush to fill pauses in the conversation.
- Interpret information both from the point of view of your own culture, and from the point of view of a culture of your counterpart.
- Try not to read your own meaning into someone e se’s
- Don’t hurry to make assessments and value
- Learn to recognize non-verbal messages of the person you are talking to (facial expressions, gestures, posture, intonation, etc.).
- Don’t jump to conclusions based on a single gesture or
It is interesting that one of the most successful strategies in dealing with people from other cultures is simply to imitate them. Copying the way your negotiating partner behaves significantly increases the chances of a positive outcome for both sides. So being a chameleon can help you to succeed in international negotiations. In any case, courtesy, respect for the person you are talking to and their culture, and openness in communication can work wonders. (The same applies in daily life.)
2
Game
Imagine that you are taking part in a United Nations Conference on Climate Change, and you are going to discuss the problems of different countries related to climate change.
Prepare a brief welcome speech that the head of your state will read to conference participants. The speech should mention:
- the climate and main natural resources of your country
- how people in your country live
- the chief sectors of your country’s economy
- the impact of climate change on nature, people and the economy
- what your country expects the conference to achieve
After the welcome speech the conference participants express their views on how to prevent the negative impacts of climate change on the environment and people in the countries taking part in the conference.
At the end of the game, the participants select a winner – the student who contributed the most to the discussion, and who said the most relevant, well-argued, and interesting things
3
You are a governmental officer in a small island state in the Pacific region. You are preparing a proposal to apply for international financial support to help your country cope with the negative impacts of climate change.
Include the following issues in your funding proposal:
- What expected effects of global warming represent the greatest threat to your country?
- What is to be done if rising sea levels threaten to engulf the whole of your island?
- What international organizations and states will you apply to for help?
- How do you plan to preserve the culture of your country, if your island disappears under the sea?
